King Gustav had the "English Park" at Drottningholm
designed in the style of Capability Brown (Lancelot
Brown, 1716-1783). Here we can see Appuldurcombe
country garden, and an inset portrait of Capability
Brown. In England, the country gardens of Capability
Brown are associated with Protestantism, as opposed
to Baroque palace gardens, which are associated with
Catholicism. The differences in garden styles are
less strictly observed in Sweden.
2Click to see Drottningholm palace gardens.
The Renaissance theatre was designed with a proscenium, a place for an orchestra,
and seating for an audience. At first, stage machines that allowed for rapid change
of scenery, called periaktoi, were used. The periaktoi were usually several triangular
cylinders (prisms) with different scenes on each side. The scenes were painted
in perspective. Scenery could be changed rapidly simply by rotating the periaktoi.
Unfortunately, the periaktoi were cumbersome, so Giacomo Torelli
used flats or movable wings that extended below the stage floor. The portion of the
flats below the stage floor were connected by a winch using ropes and pulleys that
allowed the flats on both the left side of the stage and the right side of the stage
to be simultaneously moved thus allowing immediate change of scenery on both sides
of the stage. Note: the corago had the task of finding, maintaining, and
setting up (as needed) all decorations, devices, and equipment needed for any theatrical
event. Some of the first stage machinery was designed by
Brunelleschi and Leonardo da Vinci.
Trompe l'oeil using linear perspective was used in the first Renaissance theatres.
3
Ferdinando Galli da Bibiena used multiple vanishing points on stage
scenery, including the use of scena per angolo or "horned" perspective (multiple
vanishing points).
The stage was raked (raised at an angle) to be compatible
with recession into the distance, according to linear perspective. Stage scenery
in linear perspective was called "scénography". The scenery was typically
painted to be compatible with the linear perspective of the stage.
Click here
to see a diagram explaining aspects of theatre design evolution.
Early theatre design used "periaktos" (discussed in Vitruvius, and used
in Renaissance theatres by Nicola Sabbattini, 1574-1654). A "periaktoi"
was typically a three- or four-sided cylinder, each face having a
different scene painted on it, in linear perspective. Several such
cylinders could be used. By rotating the faces of several of these
cylinders in succession, rapid scenery changes were effected. Of course,
other "periaktos" designs could be used, such as five- or six-faced
cylinders (
click here ).
Later, "periaktos" were replaced by "flats" or sliding and
removable wings. These flats moved in grooves in the stage, and were
also painted with scenes in linear perspective. The flats originally
projected at right angles from the stage, but later changed such that
these wings projected at an angle, allowing actors and props to
be more easily hidden from the view of the audience (
click here ).
Flats could be used to almost instantaneously change scenery, but lighting
as well (as dark scenery could be replaced by light scenery). In our
times, scenery and props are typically changed unseen, between acts.
During the Baroque, the audience often liked to see the scenery being
changed, called "changement à vue".
Baroque theatres were a part of the society that existed. Specifically,
these were the times during which a crown nobility ruled, in conjunction
with aristocrats and the clergy. Rule was by and in conjunction with
Christian princes. This society was based upon peasants. Peasants located
in the farming countryside, with occasional towns with guilds and merchants.
These three estates: nobility, church clergy, and peasants were reflected
in the theatres. For example, the Markgräfliches Opernhaus in Bayreuth
had three tiers, one reserved for each estate. As yet another example of
class (estate) being represented in theatre design, the crown nobility
usually were seated in a crown loge or box (the "presence" referred to by
dance authority, Wendy Hilton 4).
However, at Drottningholm, the crown nobility sat in two chairs (thrones).
Sometimes other loges (boxes) existed (such as "incognito boxes"
where persons could see the stage, but not be seen). At Drottningholm, two
boxes were typically used to hold musicians (trumpet loges), although
bourgeois loges also existed at other theatres. At Drottningholm, there
was not only a stage curtain, but a second audience curtain that
separated the lower class people from the aristocrats seated towards the front
of the audience. Theatres and stages evolved, thus earlier stages had wings
or flats that were moved independently by people, as opposed to more advanced
stages such as at Drottningholm, where winches, ropes and pulleys moved the
wings simultaneously. As another example, the Residenztheatre in Munich
had a raked auditorium in which the angle of raking was adjustable.
After all, is the audience in the auditorium observing the stage (and crown
presence) or is the crown presence observing his audience in his auditorium?
"The world is but a theatre."
5 Drottningholm was
not so well equipped as the Residenztheatre in Munich. Thus a
distinction should be made between a Baroque stage vs a Baroque theatre
click here.
These theatres used complex machinery to allow special effects. This
machinery included:
Trap doors on the stage. These were typically used with sound
effects such as thunder, and lightning, that would usually
accompany the entry of characters from the underworld.
Choron's Steps. These were underground steps that led from under
the stage and emerged near the seats in the audience. The entry
of characters using these steps would be accompanied by sound
effects such as thunder, and lightening, usually associated with
the underworld. The audience
was typically rather startled to find a devil suddenly appear, only
a few inches away.
Overhead moving panels, often in the shape of clouds, enabling
several characters dressed as angels or gods to ride across the heavens.
"Deus ex machina" (literally, "god in a machine") that allowed gods
or goddesses to "fly" from the heavens and alight upon the stage! A
stage derrick or crane would be used for this purpose, with ropes not
easily seen by the audience to carry actors through the air, very much
in the style of a modern "Peter Pan" (
click here ).
Rolling thunder machines were effected in several ways,
including rolling canon balls, or using a heavy wooden cylinder with
raised or projecting edges to produce sound as it rolled.
For best effect, these could be used either overhead or under the stage,
as if the thunder was in the heavens or in the underworld. Sometimes
sheets of thin metal were used to produce a sound of thunder.
Lightning machines were jagged pieces of wood, with a shining
metal edge so that when the wood was moved (pieces slided) the edges
caught the light and created the effect of lightning.
Rain machines were circular cylinders containing sand. When these
cylinders were cranked causing them to rotate, the sand would fall,
producing a sound that very effectively sounded like rain.
Wind machines were circular cylinders with somewhat abrasive surfaces.
When the surface of these cylinders were cranked, causing them to rotate,
the abrasive surfaces would rub against other surfaces, producing a sound
much like wind. By gradually increasing the rate at which the circular
cylinders rotated, the sound of wind in storms was produced. These sounds
were evocative of what the Renaissance audience thought sailing ships
experienced when sailing to the New World or the Asian Spice Islands.
Wave machines were composed of several large, long circular cylinders with
grooves. These cylinders were covered with a canvas-like cloth, often
colored blue to simulate ocean seas. When these cylinders were simultaneously
rotated, the grooves looked like waves. The speed of rotation could be slow
(calm seas), or could be fast for angry seas in storms! When coupled with
wind machines, rain machines, and thunder boxes, with lightning, an very
realistic effect was produced.
Machines for some special purpose could be created. Thus Graf (Count)
N. Sheremetev had a special machine constructed and located under his serf
theatre stage at his estate "Ostankino". This machine consisted of
three large wooden cylinders. This machine produced the sound of marching
armies. Russia had been involved in several wars: Sweden (access to the
Baltic: Poltava), Ottomans (access to the Black Sea: Ismail, for example).
France (Napoléon in 1812, and Suverov in the Alps: 1806). War at
home (Pugachev Rebellion 1773-75). A war environment on the stage was a
significant feature in Russian theatre, that reflected Russian social
experience. In addition to the unique machine that produced the sound of
marching armies, used at Ostankino, a primitive "spotlight" was also
developed and used at the Ostankino theatre!
The design of theatres to allow large audiences to see the stage, to support
orchestras, the use of linear perspective scénography, the use of theatre
machinery to raise or lower curtains, simultaneously move wings (flats),
support the use of "flying" aerial gods and goddesses, trap doors, and special
effects such as rain machines, wind machines, rolling thunder with lightning,
theatre lighting, costume design, effective music and dancing, are further
examples of "rhetoric tacens": silent or performative rhetoric, but now applied
to the theatre.
The lighting in Renaissance theatres was based upon candles (with reflective
"basons"), chandeliers using candles, torches, etc. As a consequence, most
of these theatres burned down. However, a few such "perspective theatres"
still exist 6, 7
(see References for examples of works perfomed at Drottningholm Court Theatre).
Lighting and costume were very demanding in Baroque theatres. Thus mirrors,
spangles, sequins, stones, and metalic thread were used as a source of on-stage
illumination on clothing. Similarly, wide farthingales with panniers made
navigation between flats difficult for actresses or dancers.
Using a pulley, a chandelier with lit candles could be rapidly
raised into position, above the heads of the audience. As melted
wax from these candles could fall upon the heads of the audience
below, these candles were set into small dishes used to collect
the melted wax. If candles burned out, these same pulleys with
ropes attached to the chandeliers could be used to rapidly lower
the chandeliers and replenish the chandeliers with new candles
(and wax removed from the wax collecting dishes). These candles
smoked, causing an unpleasant odor, but perfumes could be mixed
into the wax. To rapidly light candles in the lowered
chandeliers, a wire covered with an inflamable material encircled
the chandelier and thus all the candles. When this imflamable
material was ignited, it rapidly spread around the wire, therby
ignighting all the candles. 9
.
If colored glass (like that used in church windows) cylinders encircled
these candles, lighting of different colors could be used on stage, and
such cylinders could be rapidly replaced with other cylinders to change
stage lighting geometries. See below:
.
Examining the figure above, it is clear that two sources of
illumination can simultaneously be controlled to provide more
(or less) light. The figure below shows that this methodology
can be extended to many sources of illumination.
.
Footlights are yet another specialized aspect of theatre lighting.
Light sources such as candles could be located on a beam, the beam
attached to a gear. The gear can be hand-cranked, such that when it
was turned (by a handle), the beam and the footlights rise upward,
or are lowered. Combined with the method described above, the
footlights can be simultaneously brightened or damped. An example
of this can be seen at Litomyšl castle theatre in Czechoslovakia,
see the theatres, above.
The effectiveness of stage lighting, as well as use of stage machinery by the
corago in Bernardo Buontalenti's Il rapimento di Cefalo has been
well described.
10
Clothes were made that had silver and gold wire interwoven in the cloth.
Sometimes costume jewelry, such as immitation (glass) diamonds,
emeralds, rubies, amethyst, etc., was woven into the cloth. Paillettes
(ornamental glittering spangles), mirrors, sequins, etc., were attached
to the cloth. Obviously such costumes could be heavy, but clothing such
as this was used upon the stage as it reflected light. Thus, clothes
were used to illuminate the person on stage.
Click here. Similarly, jewelry
such as "girandoles", or large errings
were used by women on the theatre stage, as a form of illumination.
Click here. Similarly, rings were
used to illuminate the gesturing hand, neclaces were used to illuminate
the gesturing body. Candle light reflecting from these mirrors, glass,
etc. was effective.
11Click here.
References
Cimarosa, Domenico;
"Il Matrimonio Segreto"
(The Secret Marriage),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(While the Drottningholm court theatre orchestra
is featured, this opera takes place at the Cologne
Opera house, NOT at the Drottningholm court theatre.)
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"Cosi fan Tutti"
(They are all that Way),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Emphasis upon performers thus the Drottningholm
theatre is de-emphasized.)
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail"
(The Abduction from the Seraglio),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Blind loges clearly seen, flats
painted to show linear-perspective, emphasis upon
performers thus the Drottningholm theatre is de-emphasized,
costumes used for stage illumination,
evidence of racism and Ottomans [Turks] are
confused with Moguls [Indians].)
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"Die Zauberflöte"
(The Magic Flute),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Blind loges clearly seen, especially during the overature),
flats painted to show linear-perspective (scaenographic
palladian flats), flats display "changement à vue"
on several occasions. People emerge simultaneously from the wings.
theatre machinery includes thunder machine, lightning,
use of trap door (to allow the Queen of the Night to appear,
as well as disappear; when Papageno first asks Papagena's name),
cloud machine, tree arriving for Papageno to hang himself. Costumes:
illuminated, and use jewelery (girandoles, neclaces, sequins), also
use feathers, wigs, farthingales. Sensitive use of hand and facial
gestures (reminicent of "Ballet d'Action").
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"Idomeneo",
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Flats painted in perspective and in "changement à vue",
Stage machinery such as the wave machine can be seen.)
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"La Finta Giardiniera"
(The Pretend Garden-Girl),
Drottningholm Theatre
(Similar to Molière: Commedia dell'Arte,
blind loges clearly seen, wonderful parody
of French choreography, a variety of theatre machines:
ligtning, wind, and rolling-thunder machines, flats
painted to show linear-perspective.)
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"Le Nozze di Figaro"
(The Marriage of Figaro),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
Moving flats ("changement à vue") are not
to be seen; lightning appears in act 4, otherwise no
theatre machinery; mostly closeups targeting the
TV/Disneyland/Peter Sellars audience, thus the raked
stage with perspective flats are ignored except at the
end of act 2, and act 3 scene 1; blind loges (trumpet
boxes) are visible; costumes are good, but notably,
masks are used in act 4: (female goat, figaro as horned
[cuckold], masks as in Commedia dell'arte Arlequin).
.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus;
"La Clemenza di Tito"
(The Clemency of Titus),
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Blind loges clearly seen,
flats painted in perspective and in "changement à vue",
costumes show "turquerie" and "chinoiserie",
clothing and jewelery used to enhance stage illumination,
stage machinery such as trap doors, Swedish propaganda evident [well done!].)
.
Rameau, Jean-Philippe;
"Zoroastre opéra"
(Zoroaster),
Opus Arte, East Sussex, 2007,
Drottningholm Court Theatre
(Dramatic example of flats in "changement à vue"
and use of stage machinery.)
1
Orchestre, Choeurs & Danseurs du Poème Harmonique,
Dumestre, Vincent; Lazar, Benjamin; Skamletz, Gudrun;
"Cadmus & Hermione": tragédie lyrique,
musique de Jean-Baptiste Lully et livret de Philippe Quinault"
.
2
Sauter, Willmar and Wiles, David; "The Theatre of Drottningholm
- Then and Now: Performances between the 18th and 21st centuries",
Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Theatre Studies 4,
Stockholm University, 2014, pp. 127, 137
.
3
Pirrotta, Nino, and Povoledo, Elena; "Music and Theatre from
Poliziano to Monteverdi", Cambridge Univ., 1982, pp. 3, 40, 41
Also:
Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical
Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini",
Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, p. 22
.
According to Nicola Sabbatini, "... the stage should reach no higher than
the middle of an average man's chest, or about 4.5 feet (1.4 meters).",
.
Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical
Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini",
Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, p. 22
.
4
Hilton, Wendy; "Dance and Music of Court and Theatre:
Selected Writings of Wendy Hilton", Pendragon Press,
Stuyvesant, New York, 1997, p. 85
.
5
Sauter, Willmar and Wiles, David; "The Theatre of Drottningholm
- Then and Now: Performances between the 18th and 21st centuries",
Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Theatre Studies 4,
Stockholm University, 2014, pp. 121-124
.
6
Ibid.
.
7
Beijer, Agne; "Court Theatres of Drottningholm and Gripsholm",
Benjamin Blom, New York, 1972
.
8
Perspective theatres with raked stages, flats and paintings
emphasizing linear perspective, using theatre stage machinery
such as cloud machines, rolling-thunder boxes, lightning
effects, wind machines and wave machines, etc. have been
forgotten and are ill-understood by many opera and ballet
audiences and critics. Thus, when Renaissance or Baroque
theatres are described, one cannot always be sure if the
theatre really is a perspective theatre. However, it is
quite possible (for example) that the Markgräflerland
Opera (Margravial Opera House or Markgräfliches Opernhaus)
in Bayreuth is yet another Baroque perspective theatre.
.
9
Hewitt, Barbara (Editor); "The Renaissance Stage: Documents
of Serlio, Sabbattini and Furtenbach", Univ. of Miami
Press, 1958, pp. 111-113
.
10
Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical
Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini",
Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, pp. 27-35
.
11
Linthicum, M. Channing; "Costume in the Drama of Shakespeare
and his Contemporaraies", Russell & Russell, 1963